निर्बल आजा,
सजग व्यथा का,
पाकी यह संसार!
तुज्हे पूछता,
मुजहे भूलता,
यह कैसा आचार?
...ankur
Monday, May 11, 2009
पर कृषक की माटी ही,
निरवानों की बेला पर,
चढ़े खूब श्रृंगार,
पर कृषक की माटी ही,
क्यो करती प्रहार!
....ankur
चढ़े खूब श्रृंगार,
पर कृषक की माटी ही,
क्यो करती प्रहार!
....ankur
और खाली कुरुषेत्र!
प्रेम प्रसंग,
और खाली कुरुषेत्र!
पीडाओं के वार,
नही चुकता अर्जुन का,
मतस्य प्रति वयवहार!
...ankur
प्रतिसादों का आचार।
आकर्षित है जल थल मैं,
तेरा मेरा व्यभिचार।
निर्विघ्न समां जाता है,
प्रतिसादों का आचार।
...ankur
गूंजे व्योम प्रतिकार!
निर्मित्त आकृति का सुविचार,
व्यभिचारी मेरा साकार,
आवेदनों के रथ पर,
गूंजे व्योम प्रतिकार!
...ankur
प्रतिपल तुम श्रीगणेश करो,
प्रतिपल तुम श्रीगणेश करो,
आदेश स्वाश मैं भरे चलो!
निर्विघ्न विचारों की धारा मैं,
प्रवेश करो, प्रवेश करो!
...ankur
Wednesday, May 6, 2009
Who is the Culprit?
World over the economy is facing the pain of Deep Wound made by the ailing economy.In this era of Globalisation succeeded by Glocalisation every country is suffering from an H1N1 syndrome which is highly epidemic. India is also not untouched!
I remember the quote which I had learnt in my school days that once India was nicknames as "Sone ki Chidiya". A bird made of Gold. A rich country with a equivalent rich culture indeed.
A beautiful past!
But where we stand today? We have been ruled by foreigners for over 1000 years. We lost a lot!
Not only the money but also the prestige. Interestingly I had read in a Newspapers long back that Indians do have the sharpest brain the world, quoted by French Education Minister.
More than 60 pathetic years have passed since we have got the freedom. But where we stand today despite the rich culture and a big pool of most intelligent breed in the world?
We are loosing jobs, Obama is respected more than our own Prime Minister. Bills passed in US are of more importance then the bills passed in our so called sabji-mandi, Parliament.
We thrive for H1 Visa. We have second highest population in India.
Even recently I have heard that the much talked about Swine Flu today have a cure in India. WHO has contacted and relied on an Indian company to invent a vaccine to counter attack the deadly virus.
Though Indian Origin brains are running the biggest economy of the world. Mr. Obama relies upon the people of India to make policy decisions.
Even big-shot Warren Buffet when talks about an Indian being the most intelligent brain working with him gives our morale a big boost.
I feel among all the habitats it is the brain which makes Human a superior breed which we have got by Birth, but sad fully to mention that more than 40% of the population of India is reeling under the Below Poverty Line whose annual income is hardly 10000 INR a year in a country where per capita Income is 24000 INR a year which is much less than Pakistan's per capita Income?
Off the track I gives me great pain to accept a fact that India do have the highest Polygamy rate of 5.6%. What culture we are proud of?
Time has come when we need to seriously think about changing the culture and economic policies.
In India the base of the pyramid is too big. Roughly over 60% of the population is dependent on Agriculture though day on day representation of Agriculture in GDP has come down to a mere 17% today. What a mockery?
Further you will be surprised to know that Agri Processed Food Account for more than 33% of the total GDP to which nil share is imparted to the toiling Farmer in the land. Why?
From over 50% in 1950 to 17% in 2009, where we are heading.
Why are we allowing the riches consisting of Indians and foreigners to eat up the over 33% of the GDP? For every 100 INR spent by a FI in India takes back 300 INR.
Are we sleeping or waiting for worse to come?
Being an Agriculture Rich country we have the opportunity and the command to rule the world.
For this we need to first enrich the farmer so that he can buy new technologies and harvest even more. We should never forget that farmers are the back bone of our country and they should be given a proper respect.
Can you recall how many farmers have been awarded with a Padamshree or Padambhushan Award?
Probably None.
The country is of Farmers,for Farmers and by Farmers.
Recently I happened to go to one place in Uttarakhand, a small village named Agrakhal near Rishikesh. Land Produces tons of ORGANIC Ginger. As a buyer I can buy Ginger from a farmer for just paying Rs.22 a Kg, though the market rate in Mumbai is Rs.140 a Kg.If it is processed in any form then you will get it for Rs.1000 a Kg. So what a big gap from a meagre 22 to 1000?
Who is earning out of the total game. definitely it is not the farmer who is producing it but the middle man who is getting richer and richer day on day on the ever increasing poverty of poor farmer?
Just declaring a relief package of Rs.60000 cr will not suffice. Its a temporary move. How we can ever dare to oblige a farmer who is giving us something without which we can survive?
At the end with the facts and figures I am leaving a question "Who is the real culprit for all this menace?"
Jai Hind..
...Ankur
I remember the quote which I had learnt in my school days that once India was nicknames as "Sone ki Chidiya". A bird made of Gold. A rich country with a equivalent rich culture indeed.
A beautiful past!
But where we stand today? We have been ruled by foreigners for over 1000 years. We lost a lot!
Not only the money but also the prestige. Interestingly I had read in a Newspapers long back that Indians do have the sharpest brain the world, quoted by French Education Minister.
More than 60 pathetic years have passed since we have got the freedom. But where we stand today despite the rich culture and a big pool of most intelligent breed in the world?
We are loosing jobs, Obama is respected more than our own Prime Minister. Bills passed in US are of more importance then the bills passed in our so called sabji-mandi, Parliament.
We thrive for H1 Visa. We have second highest population in India.
Even recently I have heard that the much talked about Swine Flu today have a cure in India. WHO has contacted and relied on an Indian company to invent a vaccine to counter attack the deadly virus.
Though Indian Origin brains are running the biggest economy of the world. Mr. Obama relies upon the people of India to make policy decisions.
Even big-shot Warren Buffet when talks about an Indian being the most intelligent brain working with him gives our morale a big boost.
I feel among all the habitats it is the brain which makes Human a superior breed which we have got by Birth, but sad fully to mention that more than 40% of the population of India is reeling under the Below Poverty Line whose annual income is hardly 10000 INR a year in a country where per capita Income is 24000 INR a year which is much less than Pakistan's per capita Income?
Off the track I gives me great pain to accept a fact that India do have the highest Polygamy rate of 5.6%. What culture we are proud of?
Time has come when we need to seriously think about changing the culture and economic policies.
In India the base of the pyramid is too big. Roughly over 60% of the population is dependent on Agriculture though day on day representation of Agriculture in GDP has come down to a mere 17% today. What a mockery?
Further you will be surprised to know that Agri Processed Food Account for more than 33% of the total GDP to which nil share is imparted to the toiling Farmer in the land. Why?
From over 50% in 1950 to 17% in 2009, where we are heading.
Why are we allowing the riches consisting of Indians and foreigners to eat up the over 33% of the GDP? For every 100 INR spent by a FI in India takes back 300 INR.
Are we sleeping or waiting for worse to come?
Being an Agriculture Rich country we have the opportunity and the command to rule the world.
For this we need to first enrich the farmer so that he can buy new technologies and harvest even more. We should never forget that farmers are the back bone of our country and they should be given a proper respect.
Can you recall how many farmers have been awarded with a Padamshree or Padambhushan Award?
Probably None.
The country is of Farmers,for Farmers and by Farmers.
Recently I happened to go to one place in Uttarakhand, a small village named Agrakhal near Rishikesh. Land Produces tons of ORGANIC Ginger. As a buyer I can buy Ginger from a farmer for just paying Rs.22 a Kg, though the market rate in Mumbai is Rs.140 a Kg.If it is processed in any form then you will get it for Rs.1000 a Kg. So what a big gap from a meagre 22 to 1000?
Who is earning out of the total game. definitely it is not the farmer who is producing it but the middle man who is getting richer and richer day on day on the ever increasing poverty of poor farmer?
Just declaring a relief package of Rs.60000 cr will not suffice. Its a temporary move. How we can ever dare to oblige a farmer who is giving us something without which we can survive?
At the end with the facts and figures I am leaving a question "Who is the real culprit for all this menace?"
Jai Hind..
...Ankur
Thursday, April 30, 2009
Saturday, April 25, 2009
Polygamy! Is it Logical?
I am touching a very sensitive and not to talked about issue today through my Blog.
I am sure you will find it interesting but please don't be shy in spreading the information that I am going to share with you on this forum.
We know that Polygamy is not allowed as per Hindu Marriage Act 1955 and as per Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Act 1939 Muslims can have 4 wives at a time. In Muslim Religion Polygyny is allowed but not the Polyandry (one woman having more than one husband) and Group Marriages (husbands having many wives and those wives having many husbands).
Polygamy is often confused as One Husband having many Wives though its not true; it includes Polygyny,Polyandry and Group Marriages.
One data published at wikipedia surprised me!
Ironically, according to the 1961 census (the last census to record such data), polygamy was actually less prevalent among Indian Muslims (5.7%) than among several other religious groups. Incidence was highest among Adivasis (15.25%) and Buddhists (7.9%); Hindus, by comparison, had an incidence of 5.8%.[55]
So, the religions in which any kind of Polygamy is discouraged are actually not following the virtues taught by their Religion. This is a matter of shame for them.
According to Theravada Buddhism, polygamy is discouraged and extramarital affairs are considered sinful. It is said in the Parabhava Sutta that "a man who is not satisfied with one woman and seeks out other women is on the path to decline".
Though I am an ardent opposer of Polygamy but Muslims do earn a pat on their backs.
Further, I would request the Government of India to ban Polygamy in India.
It has been declared illegal in countries like UK,USA,Turkey, Uzbekistan to name a few. Even in Iran the permission has to be taken from the first wife in writing. So why in India we are bind to follow this orthodox and nonsense practice of the religion.
Especially in a country with a population of over a Billion, is this advisable to continue such practices in the name of a religion.
Forget Population! My Muslim Brothers will accept that Marriage is a right and responsibility of every individual. In the words of prophet:
Prophet said:-“When a man marries he has fulfilled half of his religion, so let him fear Allah regarding the remaining half.”This very wording of Prophet marks the importance of marriage, thus it could be well concluded that marriage in Islam is must.
Second it is also very clear that every religion discourages Divorce.
Now going with the current Male to Female Ratio for in India for every 1000 Men there are less than 900 Women. So, theoretically and practically there is not a single girl available for marriage for every individual Man. In this scenario if some religion encourages Polygamy will it not led to opposition by force to the saying of great Prophet?
What I understand Polygamy was put in practice when there Male to Female ratio was biased towards Female side. But biologically the bias has changed it direction over a period of time.
I hope the religions and the governments also understand this and scrap this law immediately.
Though this article may hurt someone's feeling but my pure intention was to discuss a social problem and not to hurt any community. I apologise in anticipation in case it has hurt someone even a bit.
.........Ankur
I am sure you will find it interesting but please don't be shy in spreading the information that I am going to share with you on this forum.
We know that Polygamy is not allowed as per Hindu Marriage Act 1955 and as per Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Act 1939 Muslims can have 4 wives at a time. In Muslim Religion Polygyny is allowed but not the Polyandry (one woman having more than one husband) and Group Marriages (husbands having many wives and those wives having many husbands).
Polygamy is often confused as One Husband having many Wives though its not true; it includes Polygyny,Polyandry and Group Marriages.
One data published at wikipedia surprised me!
Ironically, according to the 1961 census (the last census to record such data), polygamy was actually less prevalent among Indian Muslims (5.7%) than among several other religious groups. Incidence was highest among Adivasis (15.25%) and Buddhists (7.9%); Hindus, by comparison, had an incidence of 5.8%.[55]
So, the religions in which any kind of Polygamy is discouraged are actually not following the virtues taught by their Religion. This is a matter of shame for them.
According to Theravada Buddhism, polygamy is discouraged and extramarital affairs are considered sinful. It is said in the Parabhava Sutta that "a man who is not satisfied with one woman and seeks out other women is on the path to decline".
Though I am an ardent opposer of Polygamy but Muslims do earn a pat on their backs.
Further, I would request the Government of India to ban Polygamy in India.
It has been declared illegal in countries like UK,USA,Turkey, Uzbekistan to name a few. Even in Iran the permission has to be taken from the first wife in writing. So why in India we are bind to follow this orthodox and nonsense practice of the religion.
Especially in a country with a population of over a Billion, is this advisable to continue such practices in the name of a religion.
Forget Population! My Muslim Brothers will accept that Marriage is a right and responsibility of every individual. In the words of prophet:
Prophet said:-“When a man marries he has fulfilled half of his religion, so let him fear Allah regarding the remaining half.”This very wording of Prophet marks the importance of marriage, thus it could be well concluded that marriage in Islam is must.
Second it is also very clear that every religion discourages Divorce.
Now going with the current Male to Female Ratio for in India for every 1000 Men there are less than 900 Women. So, theoretically and practically there is not a single girl available for marriage for every individual Man. In this scenario if some religion encourages Polygamy will it not led to opposition by force to the saying of great Prophet?
What I understand Polygamy was put in practice when there Male to Female ratio was biased towards Female side. But biologically the bias has changed it direction over a period of time.
I hope the religions and the governments also understand this and scrap this law immediately.
Though this article may hurt someone's feeling but my pure intention was to discuss a social problem and not to hurt any community. I apologise in anticipation in case it has hurt someone even a bit.
.........Ankur
A Trap for Non-Muslim Girls?
Refer the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act, 1939 I found a very strange thing in it to which I would like to draw your attention.
If a Born Muslim Married Lady renounciates or is converted to some other religion and she looks for a Divorce then she can easily do that based on 9 grounds but in case of a Non-Muslim Girl converted to Muslim and later re-embraces her religion or renountiates Muslim Religion can't nullify her marriage or go for divorce based on the same 9 grounds.
So, it is a kind of trap for those Non Muslim Girls who marry to a Muslim Groom as it is very difficult for her to get the divorce and free herself from the mess that she may face in the future.
The 9 grounds on which the divorce can be sought.
i) that the whereabouts of the husband have not been known for a period of four years;(ii) that the husband has neglected or has filed to provide for her maintenance for a period of two years;(ii-A) that the husband has taken an additional wife in contravention of the provisions of the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, 1961;(iii) that the husband has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of seven years or upwards;
(iv) that the husband has failed to perform, without reasonable cause, his marital obligations for a period of three years;
(v) that the husband was impotent at the time of the marriage and continues to be so;(vi) that the husband has been insane for a period of two years or is suffering from leprosy or a virulent venereal disease;(vii) that she, having been given in marriage by her father or other guardian before she attained the age of sixteen years, repudiated the marriage before attaining the age of eighteen years:
Provided that the marriage has not been consumated;
(viii)that the husband treats her with cruelty, that is to say, (a) habitually assaults her or makes her life miserable by cruelty of conduct even if such conduct does not amount to physical ill-treatment, or (b) associates with women of evil repute of leads an infamous life, or (c) attempts to force her to lead an immoral life, or (d) disposes of her property or prevents her exercising her legal rights over it, or (e) obstructs her in the observance of her religious profession or practice, or (f) if he has more wives than one, does not treat her equitably in accordance with the injunctions of the Quran,
(ix) on any other ground which is recognized as valid for the dissolution of marriages under Muslim Law,Provided that:
(a) no decree passed on ground (i) shall take effect for a period of six months from the date of such decree, and if the husband appears either in person or through an authorised agent within that period and satisfies the Court he is prepared to perform his conjugal duties the Court shall set aside the said decree; and (b) before passing a decree on ground (v) the Court shall, on application by the husband, make an order requiring the husband to satisfy the Court within a period of one year from the date of such order that he has ceased to be impotent, and if the husband so satisfied the Court within such period, no decree shall be passed on the said ground.
I hope some may find it useful!
...............Ankur
************************************************************************************
The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939
An Act to consolidate and clarify the provisions of Muslim Law relating to suits for dissolution of marriage by women married under Muslim Law and to remove doubts as to the effect of the renunciation of Islam by a married woman on her marriage tie.
Whereas it is expedient to consolidate and clarify the provisions of Muslim Law relating to suits for dissolution of marriage by women married under Muslim Law and to remove doubts as to the effect of the renunciation of Islam by a married Muslim woman on her marriage; it is hereby enacted as follows:
1. Short title and extent.(1) This Act may be called the Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939.(2) It extends to all the provinces and the Capital of the Federation.
2. Grounds for decree for dissolution of marriage.A woman married under Muslim Law shall be entitled to obtain a decree for the dissolution of her marriage on any one or more of the following grounds, namely:
(i) that the whereabouts of the husband have not been known for a period of four years;(ii) that the husband has neglected or has filed to provide for her maintenance for a period of two years;(ii-A) that the husband has taken an additional wife in contravention of the provisions of the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, 1961;(iii) that the husband has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of seven years or upwards;
(iv) that the husband has failed to perform, without reasonable cause, his marital obligations for a period of three years;
(v) that the husband was impotent at the time of the marriage and continues to be so;(vi) that the husband has been insane for a period of two years or is suffering from leprosy or a virulent venereal disease;(vii) that she, having been given in marriage by her father or other guardian before she attained the age of sixteen years, repudiated the marriage before attaining the age of eighteen years:
Provided that the marriage has not been consumated;
(viii)that the husband treats her with cruelty, that is to say, (a) habitually assaults her or makes her life miserable by cruelty of conduct even if such conduct does not amount to physical ill-treatment, or (b) associates with women of evil repute of leads an infamous life, or (c) attempts to force her to lead an immoral life, or (d) disposes of her property or prevents her exercising her legal rights over it, or (e) obstructs her in the observance of her religious profession or practice, or (f) if he has more wives than one, does not treat her equitably in accordance with the injunctions of the Quran,
(ix) on any other ground which is recognized as valid for the dissolution of marriages under Muslim Law,Provided that:
(a) no decree passed on ground (i) shall take effect for a period of six months from the date of such decree, and if the husband appears either in person or through an authorised agent within that period and satisfies the Court he is prepared to perform his conjugal duties the Court shall set aside the said decree; and (b) before passing a decree on ground (v) the Court shall, on application by the husband, make an order requiring the husband to satisfy the Court within a period of one year from the date of such order that he has ceased to be impotent, and if the husband so satisfied the Court within such period, no decree shall be passed on the said ground.
3. Notice to be served on heirs of the husband when the husband’s whereabouts are not known.In a suit to which clause (i) of section 2 applies:(a) the names and addresses of the persons who would have been heirs of the husband under Muslim Law if he had died on the date of the filing of the plaint shall be stated in the plaint.(b) notice of the suit shall be served on such persons, and(c) such persons shall have the right to be heard in the suit:Provided that paternal-uncle and brother of the husband, if any, shall be cited as party even if he or they are not heirs.
4. Effect of conversion to another faith.The renunciation of Islam by a married Muslim woman or her conversion to a faith other than Islam shall not by itself operate to dissolve her marriage:Provided that after such renunciation, or conversion, the woman shall be entitled to obtain a decree for the dissolution of her marriage on any of the grounds mentioned in section 2; Provided further that the provisions of this section shall not apply to a woman converted to Islam from some other faith who re-embraces her former faith.
5. Right to dower not be affected.Nothing contained in this Act shall affect any right which a married woman may have under Muslim law to her dower or any part thereof on the dissolution of her marriage
6. (Repeal of section 5 of Act, XXVI of 1937)Rep. by the Repealing and Amending Act, 1942 (XXV of 1942), section 2 and First Sch.
Source:-http://www.vakilno1.com/saarclaw/pakistan/dissolution_of_muslim_marriages_act.htm
If a Born Muslim Married Lady renounciates or is converted to some other religion and she looks for a Divorce then she can easily do that based on 9 grounds but in case of a Non-Muslim Girl converted to Muslim and later re-embraces her religion or renountiates Muslim Religion can't nullify her marriage or go for divorce based on the same 9 grounds.
So, it is a kind of trap for those Non Muslim Girls who marry to a Muslim Groom as it is very difficult for her to get the divorce and free herself from the mess that she may face in the future.
The 9 grounds on which the divorce can be sought.
i) that the whereabouts of the husband have not been known for a period of four years;(ii) that the husband has neglected or has filed to provide for her maintenance for a period of two years;(ii-A) that the husband has taken an additional wife in contravention of the provisions of the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, 1961;(iii) that the husband has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of seven years or upwards;
(iv) that the husband has failed to perform, without reasonable cause, his marital obligations for a period of three years;
(v) that the husband was impotent at the time of the marriage and continues to be so;(vi) that the husband has been insane for a period of two years or is suffering from leprosy or a virulent venereal disease;(vii) that she, having been given in marriage by her father or other guardian before she attained the age of sixteen years, repudiated the marriage before attaining the age of eighteen years:
Provided that the marriage has not been consumated;
(viii)that the husband treats her with cruelty, that is to say, (a) habitually assaults her or makes her life miserable by cruelty of conduct even if such conduct does not amount to physical ill-treatment, or (b) associates with women of evil repute of leads an infamous life, or (c) attempts to force her to lead an immoral life, or (d) disposes of her property or prevents her exercising her legal rights over it, or (e) obstructs her in the observance of her religious profession or practice, or (f) if he has more wives than one, does not treat her equitably in accordance with the injunctions of the Quran,
(ix) on any other ground which is recognized as valid for the dissolution of marriages under Muslim Law,Provided that:
(a) no decree passed on ground (i) shall take effect for a period of six months from the date of such decree, and if the husband appears either in person or through an authorised agent within that period and satisfies the Court he is prepared to perform his conjugal duties the Court shall set aside the said decree; and (b) before passing a decree on ground (v) the Court shall, on application by the husband, make an order requiring the husband to satisfy the Court within a period of one year from the date of such order that he has ceased to be impotent, and if the husband so satisfied the Court within such period, no decree shall be passed on the said ground.
I hope some may find it useful!
...............Ankur
************************************************************************************
The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939
An Act to consolidate and clarify the provisions of Muslim Law relating to suits for dissolution of marriage by women married under Muslim Law and to remove doubts as to the effect of the renunciation of Islam by a married woman on her marriage tie.
Whereas it is expedient to consolidate and clarify the provisions of Muslim Law relating to suits for dissolution of marriage by women married under Muslim Law and to remove doubts as to the effect of the renunciation of Islam by a married Muslim woman on her marriage; it is hereby enacted as follows:
1. Short title and extent.(1) This Act may be called the Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939.(2) It extends to all the provinces and the Capital of the Federation.
2. Grounds for decree for dissolution of marriage.A woman married under Muslim Law shall be entitled to obtain a decree for the dissolution of her marriage on any one or more of the following grounds, namely:
(i) that the whereabouts of the husband have not been known for a period of four years;(ii) that the husband has neglected or has filed to provide for her maintenance for a period of two years;(ii-A) that the husband has taken an additional wife in contravention of the provisions of the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, 1961;(iii) that the husband has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of seven years or upwards;
(iv) that the husband has failed to perform, without reasonable cause, his marital obligations for a period of three years;
(v) that the husband was impotent at the time of the marriage and continues to be so;(vi) that the husband has been insane for a period of two years or is suffering from leprosy or a virulent venereal disease;(vii) that she, having been given in marriage by her father or other guardian before she attained the age of sixteen years, repudiated the marriage before attaining the age of eighteen years:
Provided that the marriage has not been consumated;
(viii)that the husband treats her with cruelty, that is to say, (a) habitually assaults her or makes her life miserable by cruelty of conduct even if such conduct does not amount to physical ill-treatment, or (b) associates with women of evil repute of leads an infamous life, or (c) attempts to force her to lead an immoral life, or (d) disposes of her property or prevents her exercising her legal rights over it, or (e) obstructs her in the observance of her religious profession or practice, or (f) if he has more wives than one, does not treat her equitably in accordance with the injunctions of the Quran,
(ix) on any other ground which is recognized as valid for the dissolution of marriages under Muslim Law,Provided that:
(a) no decree passed on ground (i) shall take effect for a period of six months from the date of such decree, and if the husband appears either in person or through an authorised agent within that period and satisfies the Court he is prepared to perform his conjugal duties the Court shall set aside the said decree; and (b) before passing a decree on ground (v) the Court shall, on application by the husband, make an order requiring the husband to satisfy the Court within a period of one year from the date of such order that he has ceased to be impotent, and if the husband so satisfied the Court within such period, no decree shall be passed on the said ground.
3. Notice to be served on heirs of the husband when the husband’s whereabouts are not known.In a suit to which clause (i) of section 2 applies:(a) the names and addresses of the persons who would have been heirs of the husband under Muslim Law if he had died on the date of the filing of the plaint shall be stated in the plaint.(b) notice of the suit shall be served on such persons, and(c) such persons shall have the right to be heard in the suit:Provided that paternal-uncle and brother of the husband, if any, shall be cited as party even if he or they are not heirs.
4. Effect of conversion to another faith.The renunciation of Islam by a married Muslim woman or her conversion to a faith other than Islam shall not by itself operate to dissolve her marriage:Provided that after such renunciation, or conversion, the woman shall be entitled to obtain a decree for the dissolution of her marriage on any of the grounds mentioned in section 2; Provided further that the provisions of this section shall not apply to a woman converted to Islam from some other faith who re-embraces her former faith.
5. Right to dower not be affected.Nothing contained in this Act shall affect any right which a married woman may have under Muslim law to her dower or any part thereof on the dissolution of her marriage
6. (Repeal of section 5 of Act, XXVI of 1937)Rep. by the Repealing and Amending Act, 1942 (XXV of 1942), section 2 and First Sch.
Source:-http://www.vakilno1.com/saarclaw/pakistan/dissolution_of_muslim_marriages_act.htm
Concept of Marriage in Muslim Law!
An Overview of Concept of Marriage in Muslim Law
Islam, unlike other religions is a strong advocate of marriage. There is no place of celibacy in Islam like the Roman Catholic priests & nuns. The Prophet has said “There is no Celibacy in Islam”.
Marriage acts as an outlet for sexual needs & regulates it so one doesn’t become slave to his/her desires. It is a social need because through marriage, families are established and the families are the fundamental entity of our society. Furthermore marriage is the only legitimate or halal way to indulge in intimacy between a man and woman.
Islamic marriage although permits polygamy but it completely prohibits polyandry. Polygamy though permitted was guarded by several conditions by Prophet but these conditions are not obeyed by the Muslims in toto.
Marriage:-Pre Islamic Position
Before the birth of Islam there were several traditions in Arab. These traditions were having several unethical processes like:-
(i) Buying of girl from parents by paying a sum of money.
(ii) Temporary marriages.
(iii) Marriage with two real sisters simultaneously.
(iv) Freeness of giving up and again accepting women.
These unethical traditions of the society needed to be abolished; Islam did it and brought a drastic change in the concept of marriage.
Marriage Defined
It is quiet relevant to know whether the Muslim marriage is a sacrament like the Hindu marriage, for this let us get acquainted with some of the definitions of Muslim marriage.
(a) Hedaya 1: - Marriage is a legal process by which the several process and procreation and legitimation of children between man and women is perfectly lawful and valid.
(b) Bailies Digest 2:- A Nikah in Arabic means “Union of the series” and carries a civil contract for the purposes of legalizing sexual intercourse and legitimate procreation of children.
(c) Ameer Ali 3:- Marriage is an organization for the protection of the society. This is made to protect the society from foulness and unchestity.
(d) Abdur Rahim 4:- The Mahomedan priests regard the institution of marriage as par taking both the nature of “Ibadat” or devotional arts and “Muamlat” or dealings among men.
(e) Mahmood J. 5:- Marriage according to the Mahomedan law is not a sacrament but a civil contract.
(f) Under Section 2 of Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986 Marriage or Nikah among Muslims is a ‘Solemn Pact’ or ‘Mithaq-e-ghalid’ between a man & a woman ,soliciting each others life companionship, which in law takes the form of a contract or aqd.
It’s a matter of query still existing whether Muslim marriage is only a civil contract or an Ibadat & Muamlat. While unleashing the various definitions it’s quite a big problem to say which one is the most appropriate, in my opinion although the essentials of a contract is fulfilled yet marriage can never be said to be a contract because marriage always creates a bondage between the emotions and thinking of two person.
J Sarsah Sulaiman6 has said “In Islam , marriage is not only a civil contract but also a sacrament.”
Muslim marriage can also be differentiated from a civil contract on the basis of following points:-
(a) It cannot be done on the basis of future happenings unlike the contingent contracts.
(b) Unlike the civil contract it cannot be done for a fixed period of time. (Muta Marriage being an exception.)
Purpose of Marriage
The word “Zawj” is used in the Quran to mean a pair or a mate. The general purpose of marriage is that the sexes can provide company to one another, procreate legitimate children & live in peace & tranquility to the commandments of Allah. Marriage serves as a mean to emotional & sexual gratification and as a mean of tension reduction.
Marriage compulsory or not ?
According to Imams Abu Hanifa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal & Malik ibn Anas, marriage in Islam is recommendatory, however in certain individuals it becomes Wajib or obligatory. Imam Shafi considers it to Nafl or Mubah (preferable). The general opinion is that if a person , male or female fears that if he/she does not marry they will commit fornication, then marriage becomes “Wajib”. However, one should not marry if he does not possess the means to maintain a wife and future family or if he has no sex drive or if dislikes children, or if he feels marriage will seriously affect his religious obligations.
Prophet said:-
“When a man marries he has fulfilled half of his religion, so let him fear Allah regarding the remaining half.”
This very wording of Prophet marks the importance of marriage, thus it could be well concluded that marriage in Islam is must.
Capacity for Marriage
The general essentials for marriage under Islam are as follows:-
(i) Every Mahomedan of sound mind and having attained puberty can marry. Where there is no proof or evidence of puberty the age of puberty is fifteen years.
(ii) A minor and insane (lunatic) who have not attained puberty can be validly contracted in marriage by their respective guardians.
(iii) Consent of party is must. A marriage of a Mahomedan who is of sound mind and has attained puberty, is void, if there is no consent.
Essentials of Marriage
The essentials of a valid marriage are as follows:-
(i) There should be a proposal made by or on behalf of one of the parties to the marriage, and an acceptance of the proposal by or on behalf of the other party.
(ii) The proposal and acceptance must both be expressed at once meeting.
(iii) The parties must be competent.
(iv) There must be two male or one male & two female witnesses, who must be sane and adult Mahomedan present & hearing during the marriage proposal and acceptance. (Not needed in Shia Law)
(v) Neither writing nor any religious ceremony is needed.
Essentials Explored
(i) A Muslim marriage requires proposal ‘Ijab’ from one party and acceptance ‘Qubul’ from the other side. This must be done in one sitting.
(ii) The acceptance must be corresponding to what is being offered.
(iii) The marriage must be effectively immediate. If the Wali says “ I will marry her to you after two months”, there is no marriage.
(iv) The two parties must be legally competent; i.e. they must be sane and adult.
(v) The women must not be from the forbidden class.
(vi) The consent given must be free consent,. It must not be an outcome of compulsion, duess, coercion or undue influence.
Kinds of Marriage
Under Muslim generally two types of marriage is recognized
(i) Regular Marriage (essentials discussed earlier)
(ii) Muta marriage
Muta Marriage: -
Muta marriage is a temporary marriage. Muta marriage is recognized in Shia only. Sunni law doesn’t recognize it. (Baillie, 18). A Shia of the male sex may contract a Muta marriage with a woman professing the Mahomedan, Christian or Jewish religion, or even with a woman who is a fire worshipper but not with any woman following any other religion. But a Shia woman cannot contract a Muta marriage with a non muslim.
The essentials of Muta marriage are:-
(1) The period of cohabitation should be fixed.
(2) Dower should be fixed.
(3) If dower specified, term not specified, it could amount to permanent or regular marriage.
(4) If term fixed dower not specified, it amounts to void marriage.
Aspects of Marriage
(i) Valid or Sahih
(ii) Irregular or Fasid
(iii) Void or Batil
(i) Valid or Sahih Marriage: - Under the Muslim law, a valid marriage is that which has been constituted in accordance with the essential conditioned prescribed earlier. It confers upon the wife; the right of dower, maintenance and residence, imposes on her obligation to be faithful and obedient to her husband, admit sexual intercourse with him & observe Iddat.
(ii) Irregular or Fasid Marriage: - Those marriages which are outcome of failures on part of parties in non fulfillment of prerequisites but then also are marriages; to be terminated by one of the party is termed to be Irregular marriages. They are outcome of-
(a) A marriage without witness (Not under Shia Law)
(b) Marriage with fifth wife.
(c) Marriage with a women undergoing Iddat.
(d) Marriage with a fire-worshipper.
(e) Marriage outcome of bar of unlawful conjunction.
An irregular marriage has no legal effect before consummation but when consummated give rise to several rights & obligations.
(iii) Void or Batil Marriage:- A marriage which is unlawful from it’s beginning. It does not create any civil rights or obligations between the parties. The offspring of a void marriage is illegitimate. They are outcome of-
(a) Marriage through forced consent.
(b) Plurality of husband.
(c) Marriage prohibited on the ground of consanguinity.
(d) Marriage prohibited on the ground of affinity.
(e) Marriage prohibited on the ground of fosterage.
Effect of Marriage (Sahih)
The lawful obligations which arise after marriage are as follows-
(i) Mutual intercourse legalized and the children so born are legitimate.
(ii) The wife gets power to get ‘Mahr’
(iii) The wife entitles to get maintenance.
(iv) The husband gets right to guide and prohibit the wife’s movement(for valid reasons only)
(v) Right of succession develops.
(vi) Prohibition of marriage due to affinity.
(vii) Women bound to complete Iddat period & not to marry during Iddat period; after divorce or death of husband.
The obligations and rights set between the two parties during and after the marriage are to be enforced till legality. On the basis of a marriage husband and wife do not get the right on one another’s property.
Conclusion
Marriage is a religious duty of every Muslim and it is considered to be a moral safeguard and a social need. The Prophet has also said “Marriage is my tradition whosoever keeps away there from is not from amongst me.”
Unlike Hindu where the marriage is a sacrament, marriages in Muslims have a nature of civil contract. Marriage is necessary for the legitimization of a child. When the marriage is done in accordance to the prescribed norms it creates various rights and obligations on both the parties.
Foot Notes
1- Hedaya P. 25
2- Bailie P. 4
3- Ameer Ali, Mahomedan Law, Students 7th Ed., 97
4- Abdur Rahim,327
5- Abdul Kadir V Salima, (1886) 8 Allahabad, 144 at p 154
6- Anees Begum Vs. Mohammad Istafa (1933) 55 All 743
The author can be reached at: abhishekk@legalserviceindia.com
Source:http://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l162-Concept-of-Marriage-in-Muslim-Law.html
Islam, unlike other religions is a strong advocate of marriage. There is no place of celibacy in Islam like the Roman Catholic priests & nuns. The Prophet has said “There is no Celibacy in Islam”.
Marriage acts as an outlet for sexual needs & regulates it so one doesn’t become slave to his/her desires. It is a social need because through marriage, families are established and the families are the fundamental entity of our society. Furthermore marriage is the only legitimate or halal way to indulge in intimacy between a man and woman.
Islamic marriage although permits polygamy but it completely prohibits polyandry. Polygamy though permitted was guarded by several conditions by Prophet but these conditions are not obeyed by the Muslims in toto.
Marriage:-Pre Islamic Position
Before the birth of Islam there were several traditions in Arab. These traditions were having several unethical processes like:-
(i) Buying of girl from parents by paying a sum of money.
(ii) Temporary marriages.
(iii) Marriage with two real sisters simultaneously.
(iv) Freeness of giving up and again accepting women.
These unethical traditions of the society needed to be abolished; Islam did it and brought a drastic change in the concept of marriage.
Marriage Defined
It is quiet relevant to know whether the Muslim marriage is a sacrament like the Hindu marriage, for this let us get acquainted with some of the definitions of Muslim marriage.
(a) Hedaya 1: - Marriage is a legal process by which the several process and procreation and legitimation of children between man and women is perfectly lawful and valid.
(b) Bailies Digest 2:- A Nikah in Arabic means “Union of the series” and carries a civil contract for the purposes of legalizing sexual intercourse and legitimate procreation of children.
(c) Ameer Ali 3:- Marriage is an organization for the protection of the society. This is made to protect the society from foulness and unchestity.
(d) Abdur Rahim 4:- The Mahomedan priests regard the institution of marriage as par taking both the nature of “Ibadat” or devotional arts and “Muamlat” or dealings among men.
(e) Mahmood J. 5:- Marriage according to the Mahomedan law is not a sacrament but a civil contract.
(f) Under Section 2 of Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986 Marriage or Nikah among Muslims is a ‘Solemn Pact’ or ‘Mithaq-e-ghalid’ between a man & a woman ,soliciting each others life companionship, which in law takes the form of a contract or aqd.
It’s a matter of query still existing whether Muslim marriage is only a civil contract or an Ibadat & Muamlat. While unleashing the various definitions it’s quite a big problem to say which one is the most appropriate, in my opinion although the essentials of a contract is fulfilled yet marriage can never be said to be a contract because marriage always creates a bondage between the emotions and thinking of two person.
J Sarsah Sulaiman6 has said “In Islam , marriage is not only a civil contract but also a sacrament.”
Muslim marriage can also be differentiated from a civil contract on the basis of following points:-
(a) It cannot be done on the basis of future happenings unlike the contingent contracts.
(b) Unlike the civil contract it cannot be done for a fixed period of time. (Muta Marriage being an exception.)
Purpose of Marriage
The word “Zawj” is used in the Quran to mean a pair or a mate. The general purpose of marriage is that the sexes can provide company to one another, procreate legitimate children & live in peace & tranquility to the commandments of Allah. Marriage serves as a mean to emotional & sexual gratification and as a mean of tension reduction.
Marriage compulsory or not ?
According to Imams Abu Hanifa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal & Malik ibn Anas, marriage in Islam is recommendatory, however in certain individuals it becomes Wajib or obligatory. Imam Shafi considers it to Nafl or Mubah (preferable). The general opinion is that if a person , male or female fears that if he/she does not marry they will commit fornication, then marriage becomes “Wajib”. However, one should not marry if he does not possess the means to maintain a wife and future family or if he has no sex drive or if dislikes children, or if he feels marriage will seriously affect his religious obligations.
Prophet said:-
“When a man marries he has fulfilled half of his religion, so let him fear Allah regarding the remaining half.”
This very wording of Prophet marks the importance of marriage, thus it could be well concluded that marriage in Islam is must.
Capacity for Marriage
The general essentials for marriage under Islam are as follows:-
(i) Every Mahomedan of sound mind and having attained puberty can marry. Where there is no proof or evidence of puberty the age of puberty is fifteen years.
(ii) A minor and insane (lunatic) who have not attained puberty can be validly contracted in marriage by their respective guardians.
(iii) Consent of party is must. A marriage of a Mahomedan who is of sound mind and has attained puberty, is void, if there is no consent.
Essentials of Marriage
The essentials of a valid marriage are as follows:-
(i) There should be a proposal made by or on behalf of one of the parties to the marriage, and an acceptance of the proposal by or on behalf of the other party.
(ii) The proposal and acceptance must both be expressed at once meeting.
(iii) The parties must be competent.
(iv) There must be two male or one male & two female witnesses, who must be sane and adult Mahomedan present & hearing during the marriage proposal and acceptance. (Not needed in Shia Law)
(v) Neither writing nor any religious ceremony is needed.
Essentials Explored
(i) A Muslim marriage requires proposal ‘Ijab’ from one party and acceptance ‘Qubul’ from the other side. This must be done in one sitting.
(ii) The acceptance must be corresponding to what is being offered.
(iii) The marriage must be effectively immediate. If the Wali says “ I will marry her to you after two months”, there is no marriage.
(iv) The two parties must be legally competent; i.e. they must be sane and adult.
(v) The women must not be from the forbidden class.
(vi) The consent given must be free consent,. It must not be an outcome of compulsion, duess, coercion or undue influence.
Kinds of Marriage
Under Muslim generally two types of marriage is recognized
(i) Regular Marriage (essentials discussed earlier)
(ii) Muta marriage
Muta Marriage: -
Muta marriage is a temporary marriage. Muta marriage is recognized in Shia only. Sunni law doesn’t recognize it. (Baillie, 18). A Shia of the male sex may contract a Muta marriage with a woman professing the Mahomedan, Christian or Jewish religion, or even with a woman who is a fire worshipper but not with any woman following any other religion. But a Shia woman cannot contract a Muta marriage with a non muslim.
The essentials of Muta marriage are:-
(1) The period of cohabitation should be fixed.
(2) Dower should be fixed.
(3) If dower specified, term not specified, it could amount to permanent or regular marriage.
(4) If term fixed dower not specified, it amounts to void marriage.
Aspects of Marriage
(i) Valid or Sahih
(ii) Irregular or Fasid
(iii) Void or Batil
(i) Valid or Sahih Marriage: - Under the Muslim law, a valid marriage is that which has been constituted in accordance with the essential conditioned prescribed earlier. It confers upon the wife; the right of dower, maintenance and residence, imposes on her obligation to be faithful and obedient to her husband, admit sexual intercourse with him & observe Iddat.
(ii) Irregular or Fasid Marriage: - Those marriages which are outcome of failures on part of parties in non fulfillment of prerequisites but then also are marriages; to be terminated by one of the party is termed to be Irregular marriages. They are outcome of-
(a) A marriage without witness (Not under Shia Law)
(b) Marriage with fifth wife.
(c) Marriage with a women undergoing Iddat.
(d) Marriage with a fire-worshipper.
(e) Marriage outcome of bar of unlawful conjunction.
An irregular marriage has no legal effect before consummation but when consummated give rise to several rights & obligations.
(iii) Void or Batil Marriage:- A marriage which is unlawful from it’s beginning. It does not create any civil rights or obligations between the parties. The offspring of a void marriage is illegitimate. They are outcome of-
(a) Marriage through forced consent.
(b) Plurality of husband.
(c) Marriage prohibited on the ground of consanguinity.
(d) Marriage prohibited on the ground of affinity.
(e) Marriage prohibited on the ground of fosterage.
Effect of Marriage (Sahih)
The lawful obligations which arise after marriage are as follows-
(i) Mutual intercourse legalized and the children so born are legitimate.
(ii) The wife gets power to get ‘Mahr’
(iii) The wife entitles to get maintenance.
(iv) The husband gets right to guide and prohibit the wife’s movement(for valid reasons only)
(v) Right of succession develops.
(vi) Prohibition of marriage due to affinity.
(vii) Women bound to complete Iddat period & not to marry during Iddat period; after divorce or death of husband.
The obligations and rights set between the two parties during and after the marriage are to be enforced till legality. On the basis of a marriage husband and wife do not get the right on one another’s property.
Conclusion
Marriage is a religious duty of every Muslim and it is considered to be a moral safeguard and a social need. The Prophet has also said “Marriage is my tradition whosoever keeps away there from is not from amongst me.”
Unlike Hindu where the marriage is a sacrament, marriages in Muslims have a nature of civil contract. Marriage is necessary for the legitimization of a child. When the marriage is done in accordance to the prescribed norms it creates various rights and obligations on both the parties.
Foot Notes
1- Hedaya P. 25
2- Bailie P. 4
3- Ameer Ali, Mahomedan Law, Students 7th Ed., 97
4- Abdur Rahim,327
5- Abdul Kadir V Salima, (1886) 8 Allahabad, 144 at p 154
6- Anees Begum Vs. Mohammad Istafa (1933) 55 All 743
The author can be reached at: abhishekk@legalserviceindia.com
Source:http://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l162-Concept-of-Marriage-in-Muslim-Law.html
Friday, March 13, 2009
Space Station Research Could Help Prevent, Treat Food Poisoning
Bug Busters -- Space Station Research Could Help Prevent, Treat Food Poisoning03.11.09
Astronaut Heidemarie M. Stefanyshyn-Piper, STS-115 mission specialist, works with the Yeast-Group Activation Packs on the middeck of space shuttle Atlantis. Image Credit: NASA
Germs are virtually everywhere on Earth and it’s natural that they would stow away for the ride into space when humans go there. New NASA research shows some of those germs, or microbes, are more infectious after spending time in “zero-gravity.”
While that may sound like a bad thing – and certainly it is a challenge that needs to be met to keep astronauts healthy – there is a silver lining. Using spaceflight studies to understand the mechanism for this increased virulence could help us develop new strategies for fighting the spread of such disease-causing microbes here on Earth.
"This research opens up new areas for investigations that may improve food treatment, develop new therapies and vaccines to combat food poisoning in humans here on Earth, and protect astronauts on orbit from infectious disease," said Julie Robinson, program scientist for the International Space Station.
Experiments with Salmonella were flown on shuttle missions to the International Space Station in September 2006 and March 2008. The 2006 experiment surprisingly showed that the spaceflight environment causes a short-term alteration in Salmonella virulence. The 2008 experiment demonstrated that a change in growth media controls the virulence effect. There is no evidence that the space-grown bacteria sustain these effects long-term upon return to Earth.
Cheryl Nickerson, a scientist at Arizona State University's Biodesign Institute, led a research team that investigated the importance of the microbial growth medium to gene expression and virulence during spaceflight. Image Credit: The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University
Salmonella is a leading cause of food poisoning and related illnesses, and their unpleasant effects on our digestive systems are well documented. In the U.S. alone, according to the Centers for Disease Control, 1.4 million non-typhoidal Salmonella infections resulted in 168,000 doctor’s office visits annually from 1996–1999. Salmonella infections caused 15,000 hospitalizations and 400 deaths in each of those years. Recently, Salmonella has been in the news as the agent responsible for infectious disease outbreaks in the U.S. linked to contaminated food products like peanut butter that have sickened thousands of individuals and caused several fatalities.
Bacteria like Salmonella use an amazing array of techniques to outwit the human body’s defense mechanisms and cause illness. By changing their gene expression, they adapt to different environments to alter their disease-causing potential or virulence.
Although the study of factors related to microbial virulence is now well advanced, many key pieces of the puzzle still are missing. Cheryl Nickerson, a researcher in the Center for Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology at Arizona State University’s Biodesign Institute, led the team that investigated the effect of spaceflight on Salmonella on both space flights. The 2006 experiment was the first to identify the molecular “switch” that activates the increased the virulence of Salmonella caused by spaceflight. The follow-up experiment in 2008 showed that adjusting the ion content of the bacteria’s growth medium can be used to turn off the increase in Salmonella virulence observed in space. Nickerson’s initial findings, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, and her collective findings, published in the journal PLoS ONE, hold promise for new strategies to combat Salmonella food-borne infections.
These space experiments helped researchers show that a mechanical force known as “fluid shear,” which is the motion of fluid that cells sense as they pass over a surface, could have a dramatic effect on Salmonella's disease-causing potential. Lower fluid shear conditions, it turns out, are found both in microgravity and in our intestines. The bacteria cultured in space are more virulent, and Nickerson’s work showed that by modifying the medium in which the cells are grown, the virulence could be reduced or turned off.
Astronaut Heidemarie M. Stefanyshyn-Piper, STS-126 mission specialist, works with the Microbe Group Activation Pack containing eight Fluid Processing Apparatuses on the middeck of space shuttle Endeavour while docked with the International Space Station. Image Credit: NASA
In other words, space travel may trick the bacteria into behaving as though they were in the low fluid shear environment of the intestine, essentially turning on a switch inside the microbe that increases virulence. Changing the chemistry of the medium in which the bacteria are cultured reverses this effect.
This research opens up new opportunities to improve food treatment methods, develop new therapies and vaccines to combat food poisoning in humans here on Earth, and help better protect astronauts in space from infectious disease.
source:-http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/bugbusters.html
Astronaut Heidemarie M. Stefanyshyn-Piper, STS-115 mission specialist, works with the Yeast-Group Activation Packs on the middeck of space shuttle Atlantis. Image Credit: NASA
Germs are virtually everywhere on Earth and it’s natural that they would stow away for the ride into space when humans go there. New NASA research shows some of those germs, or microbes, are more infectious after spending time in “zero-gravity.”
While that may sound like a bad thing – and certainly it is a challenge that needs to be met to keep astronauts healthy – there is a silver lining. Using spaceflight studies to understand the mechanism for this increased virulence could help us develop new strategies for fighting the spread of such disease-causing microbes here on Earth.
"This research opens up new areas for investigations that may improve food treatment, develop new therapies and vaccines to combat food poisoning in humans here on Earth, and protect astronauts on orbit from infectious disease," said Julie Robinson, program scientist for the International Space Station.
Experiments with Salmonella were flown on shuttle missions to the International Space Station in September 2006 and March 2008. The 2006 experiment surprisingly showed that the spaceflight environment causes a short-term alteration in Salmonella virulence. The 2008 experiment demonstrated that a change in growth media controls the virulence effect. There is no evidence that the space-grown bacteria sustain these effects long-term upon return to Earth.
Cheryl Nickerson, a scientist at Arizona State University's Biodesign Institute, led a research team that investigated the importance of the microbial growth medium to gene expression and virulence during spaceflight. Image Credit: The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University
Salmonella is a leading cause of food poisoning and related illnesses, and their unpleasant effects on our digestive systems are well documented. In the U.S. alone, according to the Centers for Disease Control, 1.4 million non-typhoidal Salmonella infections resulted in 168,000 doctor’s office visits annually from 1996–1999. Salmonella infections caused 15,000 hospitalizations and 400 deaths in each of those years. Recently, Salmonella has been in the news as the agent responsible for infectious disease outbreaks in the U.S. linked to contaminated food products like peanut butter that have sickened thousands of individuals and caused several fatalities.
Bacteria like Salmonella use an amazing array of techniques to outwit the human body’s defense mechanisms and cause illness. By changing their gene expression, they adapt to different environments to alter their disease-causing potential or virulence.
Although the study of factors related to microbial virulence is now well advanced, many key pieces of the puzzle still are missing. Cheryl Nickerson, a researcher in the Center for Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology at Arizona State University’s Biodesign Institute, led the team that investigated the effect of spaceflight on Salmonella on both space flights. The 2006 experiment was the first to identify the molecular “switch” that activates the increased the virulence of Salmonella caused by spaceflight. The follow-up experiment in 2008 showed that adjusting the ion content of the bacteria’s growth medium can be used to turn off the increase in Salmonella virulence observed in space. Nickerson’s initial findings, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, and her collective findings, published in the journal PLoS ONE, hold promise for new strategies to combat Salmonella food-borne infections.
These space experiments helped researchers show that a mechanical force known as “fluid shear,” which is the motion of fluid that cells sense as they pass over a surface, could have a dramatic effect on Salmonella's disease-causing potential. Lower fluid shear conditions, it turns out, are found both in microgravity and in our intestines. The bacteria cultured in space are more virulent, and Nickerson’s work showed that by modifying the medium in which the cells are grown, the virulence could be reduced or turned off.
Astronaut Heidemarie M. Stefanyshyn-Piper, STS-126 mission specialist, works with the Microbe Group Activation Pack containing eight Fluid Processing Apparatuses on the middeck of space shuttle Endeavour while docked with the International Space Station. Image Credit: NASA
In other words, space travel may trick the bacteria into behaving as though they were in the low fluid shear environment of the intestine, essentially turning on a switch inside the microbe that increases virulence. Changing the chemistry of the medium in which the bacteria are cultured reverses this effect.
This research opens up new opportunities to improve food treatment methods, develop new therapies and vaccines to combat food poisoning in humans here on Earth, and help better protect astronauts in space from infectious disease.
source:-http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/bugbusters.html
Sunday, March 1, 2009
Risks of Global Warming Rising: Is It Too Late to Reverse Course?
The risk of catastrophic climate change is getting worse, according to a new study from scientists involved with the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Threats—ranging from the destruction of coral reefs to more extreme weather events like hurricanes, droughts and floods—are becoming more likely at the temperature change already underway: as little as 1.8 degree Fahrenheit (1 degree Celsius) of warming in global average temperatures."Most people thought that the risks were going to be for certain species and poor people. But all of a sudden the European heat wave of 2003 comes along and kills 50,000, [Hurricane] Katrina comes along and there's a lot of data about the increased intensity of droughts and floods. Plus, the dramatic melting of Greenland that nobody can explain certainly has to increase your concern," says climatologist Stephen Schneider of Stanford University, who co-authored the research published this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences as well as in several IPCC reports. "Everywhere we looked, there was evidence that what was believed to be likely has happened. Nature has been cooperating with [climate change] theory unfortunately."Schneider and his colleagues updated a graph, dubbed the "burning embers," that is designed to map the risks of damage from global warming. The initial version of the graph [left] drawn in 2001 had the risks of climate change beginning to appear after 3.6 or 5.4 degrees F (2 to 3 degrees C) of warming, but the years since have shown that climate risks kick in with less warming.According to the new graph, risks to "unique and threatened systems" such as coral reefs and risks of extreme weather events become likely when temperatures rise by as little as 1.8 degrees F from 1990 levels, which is on course to occur by mid-century given the current concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases. In addition, risks of negative consequences such as increased droughts and the complete melting of ice caps in Greenland and Antarctica definitively outweigh any potential positives, such as longer growing seasons in countries such as Canada and Russia. "We're definitely going to overshoot some of these temperatures where we see these very large vulnerabilities manifest," says economist Gary Yohe of Wesleyan University in Middletown, Conn., another co-author. "We're going to have to learn how to adapt."Adaptation notwithstanding, Yohe and Schneider say that scientists must also figure out a way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to reverse the heating trend to prevent further damage.Several bills pending in Congress would set a so-called cap-and-trade policy under which an overall limit on pollution would be set—and companies with low output could sell their allowances to those that fail to cut emissions as long as the total stays within the total pollution cap. Any such federal policy would put a price on carbon dioxide pollution, which is currently free to vent into the atmosphere, Yohe note. He, however, favors a so-called carbon tax that would set a fixed price for such climate-changing pollution rather than the cap-and-trade proposals favored by the Obama administration. "It's a predictable price, not a thing that bounces around."But even with such policies in place—not only in the U.S. but across the globe—climate change is a foregone conclusion; global average temperatures have already risen by at least 1.1 degrees Fahrenheit (0.6 degree C) and further warming of at least 0.7 degree F (0.4 degree C) is virtually certain, according to the IPCC. And a host of studies, including a recent one from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, have shown that global warming is already worse than predicted even a few years ago. The question is: Will it be catastrophic or not? "We've dawdled, and if we dawdle more it will get even worse," Schneider says. "It's time to move."
source:http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=risks-of-global-warming-rising
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